If you are travelling at terminal velocity – then you are definitely travelling very quickly.

There are huge differences in the speed at which different animals can move. The slowest animal is the 3 -toed sloth, their average speed is around 0.003 mph. This is so slow they can’t move more than 100 feet in one day! Starfish are not much faster – travelling at only 0.02 mph.

Compare this to the fastest animals  – for example the Australian tiger beetle, the fastest insect in the world. It has recorded a speed of up 5.6mph, very fast for an insect!  Then we move to the sailfish, the fastest fish in the world, moving speeds of up to 68 mph. Even faster is the cheetah, the fastest land animal which has recorded speeds of up to 75 mph. All of these fade into insignificance though, when compared to how quickly it is thought a peregrine falcon can dive. There is no confirmed top speed, as there are so many variables such as wind speed and length of dive which could effect the final speed. However it is thought they can reach speeds of up to 200 mph!!! What a difference from the sloth!!

As you will have learned in science lessons, many chemical reactions are reversible. In these reactions, there is both a forward reaction and a reverse reaction. In closed systems, eventually the forward and reverse reaction rates will be constant. This is called dynamic equilibrium.

Why not have a little break from learning how different factors affect equilibrium position. Instead, read about some amazing chemical reactions in animals!

If you scare or threaten a Bombardier beetle – you unleash a cascade of chemical reactions. This is because the beetle defends itself. It mixes smelly chemicals, including hydrogen peroxide (found in bleach) and hydroquinone together. This results in a highly exothermic reaction, which heats the mixture up to boiling point! The beetle sprays this toxic, boiling concoction at high pressure at whatever scared it. Luckily for us, this only stains and irritates our skin, but will kill smaller animals!

Many deep sea creatures use bioluminescence to see things, as light cannot penetrate more than 60 metres deep. Bioluminescence is a light-producing chemical reaction. It involves an enzyme called luciferase, and chemicals including luciferin, calcium and ATP. This mixture of chemicals reacts with oxygen, and produces light. Organisms need a constant supply of luciferin to keep glowing. Some get this from their diet, some make their own. Fireflies, angler fish, and jellyfish all produce light in this way. Crystal Jelly jellyfish are almost completely transparent., with hundreds of different sized tentacles. Not only are these tentacles loaded with poison, but they light up! When threatened, it activates the organs in its tentacles, and glows a beautiful bluey green colour!

GCSE Scientists – you need to be able to explain what dynamic equilibrium is, and the factors affecting it. For help with this try our new guide “How to work with the Dynamic Equilibrium”. It includes information on Le Chatelier’s Principle, questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide.

“What is the point of the quadratic formula?” has been asked in many classrooms around the world.

Apart from helping you solve quadratic equations for your exam, it does actually have many uses. And quadratic equations have been around for a very long time, since 3000 B.C and the Babylonians. The Babylonians divided circles up into 330 degrees, although by accident! They also began writing, and introduced agriculture and taxes. This is where the quadratic equation proved useful – helping farmers work how much crop could be grown on each field, whilst producing enough to cover taxes.

Now – you may say that you are not a farmer, so it is of no use to you. But what if you play rugby?

You are in the final minute of a rugby match and you have to kick a perfect drop goal. The last thing you will be thinking about is your maths lessons. However, to score you must kick the ball at the correct angle and velocity so that when it travels a  certain distance to the goal it is at the right height to go over the goalposts. To do this you must solve a quadratic equation! Or practice….. a lot!   Quadratic equations are actually used in everyday life, when calculating areas, determining a product’s profit or formulating the speed of an object. Constructors and architects use quadratic equations to develop buildings. Engineers use them all the time, for example to design vehicles, brake systems, and sound systems. They can also be used for defining the shape of parabolic mirrors, reflecting telescopes and satellite dishes.

GCSE Maths students – you need to be able to factorise using the quadratic formula. Our new guide, “How to work with the Quadratic Formula” can help. It includes the formula, and explains how to use it. Included, as always are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

To see the guide, click on the picture below.

The English language is changing all the time. Lots of words become obsolete, when they are no longer used very much, and people start forgetting what they actually mean. New words are created and added all the time to the dictionary as they become more popular. Many of these started as slang terms.

Here are some of the words added to the Cambridge Dictionary this year:

The ick – a sudden feeling that you dislike someone or something or are no longer attracted to someone because of something they do

A chef’s kiss – showing you think something is excellent when you put your fingers and thumb together, kiss them, then move your hand away from your lips

Face journey – when your face goes through a series of different emotions when reacting to something.

Language is so complicated! There are definitely better ways to put those letters to good use.  You guessed it – practise some algebra!!

Algebra is used in many ways, but can still be an area of Maths which many find difficult to understand. If you need some more help with algebra, then have a look at Part 5 of how “How to work with Algebra” guide.

Part 5 focusses on solving equations. It explains how to solve the following:

• One step equations
• Two step equations
• Letters on both sides
• Equations with brackets
• Equations with fractions

It also has some questions to help you practise, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to view the guide.

Fluorine is one of the halogens, and is very chemically reactive. It needs careful handling as it can explode when it comes into contact with most elements. In fact, fluorine is so reactive and dangerous that a number of scientists were seriously injured, and some even died trying to isolate it. They were known as “Fluorine Martyrs”.

Despite the danger of fluorine, it can be found in small amounts in water. In addition, toothpastes contain added fluorine. This is because it slows down the acid-producing capability of plaque, thus protecting teeth from decay. However, toothpaste is only a fairly recent invention. So how did our ancestors try and prevent the pain of rotting teeth?

The first toothbrushes date back to between 3500-3000 B.C, and the ancient Egyptians. Made out of frayed twigs, these were found preserved in their tombs. The Chinese invented the first natural bristle toothbrush in the 1400’s. Bone and bamboo formed the handles, with pig’s hair being used for the bristles. Europeans copied this, but using horsehairs or feathers instead.

In 1770, a man named William Addis was sent to prison for causing a riot. While serving his prison sentence, he came to the conclusion that using a rag covered in soot and salt to clean your teeth (which is what was done at the time), was not very effective. Using an animal bone he saved from one of his meals, bristles from the prison guards, and some glue, he made a toothbrush. Once released from prison he started a business manufacturing these toothbrushes. By 1840 they were being mass-produced in a number of countries. And Addis was a very rich man!

To see the guide, click on the picture below.

If you are studying GCSE science you will need to revise moles and calculations. But before you start working, check out some of these weird and wonderful science facts.

For any football fans out there, apparently teams wearing red kits actually play better. Throughout nature, red can symbolise aggression and in many animals it is a sign of dominance. For example, experiments have shown that red leg bands on ringed birds can help them move up the pecking order. Some scientists investigated whether wearing red increases the chances of winning in sport. After looking at boxing, freestyle wrestling and taekwondo where contestants were randomly assigned red or blue outfits, they found in all sports, those wearing red were more likely to win. Moving onto football, they also found that  teams played better when wearing red. In fact, since 1947, English football teams wearing red shirts have been champions more often than expected.

Sticking to football, have you ever wondered why footballers spit so much? As you exercise, a protein mucus is secreted into your saliva, making it thicker and consequently harder to swallow.

On a completely different note, did you know that snails have teeth? In fact, they have more teeth than any other animal, with a garden snail having about 14,000 teeth. These are arranged in rows on its tongue. Blue whales, on the other hand, despite being the largest mammals on Earth, have no teeth at all.

We should finish on a Chemistry fact. Protons come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the speed of  quarks (smaller particles inside them). They can be spherical, or look like peanuts, bagels or rugby balls!

If you are studying GCSE science you need to be able to complete calculations with moles, and masses. For help with this try our new revision guide “How to work with Moles and Calculations”. It explains how to calculate relative formula mass, how to use the moles/mass/formula mass equation, and how to calculate the number of atoms in compounds. Included are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

To see the guide click the picture below.

Factors and multiples are common terms used in your Maths lessons, and you need to know how to work with them. But, before you start revising, have you ever wondered how we even started using numbers? When did we start to use them and why?

Obviously, humans are now incredibly adept at using numbers, and they are crucial to so many aspects of our lives. However, it cannot just be us who are able to process numbers. The ability to do this is beneficial to the survival of species and many different animals are able to do so. Animals use numbers to avoid predation, find their way around and socialise!

Bees are amazing animals in many ways, but they can actually estimate how many landmarks they fly past to reach food. This helps them to measure how far a food source is from their hive. Scientists have even shown that bees can count up to four, and recognise the concept of zero.

Different birds have developed strategies for alerting others to potential predators. Black-capped chickadees, like many other animals, produce an alarm when they spot a predator. The chickadee produces a “chick-a-dee” sound (hence its name). Amazingly, they will adjust the number of “dee” notes at the end of the alarm  to let their fellow birds know how dangerous the predator is. For example a relatively harmless great grey owl only warrants two “dee” notes. This is because it is too big to move quickly enough through the trees to catch them. Whereas a small pygmy owl, one of the most dangerous predators, gets four “dee” notes. Clever stuff!

Sticking to birds, some species have developed the ability to count eggs as a means of avoiding raising other bird’s young. For example, American coots sneak their eggs into each other’s nests. This is so they do not have to do the hard work of raising their chicks. However, studies suggest that coots lay their own average-sized clutch, and then can tell if any additional eggs have been snuck in. These ones they will ignore!.

Lionesses count how many roars from another pride before they decide whether to attack or run.  There are spiders which will track how many prey they catch in their web, and ants which count their steps. Almost all animals studied by scientists can tell the difference between different numbers of objects. Maybe it is not just human children who have Maths lessons!

“How to work with Factors and Multiples” explains what factors, prime factors and multiples are. It includes explanations of how to find factors and multiples, and how to complete a Prime Factor Tree. Included, as always, are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

To see the guide, click on the picture below.

If you jump out of a plane, you will accelerate towards the Earth for a while. The speed at which you fall will eventually even out as a result of air resistance. This is known as terminal velocity. But before you start revising, why not check out some of these fun facts about speed.

Apparently the mouth is the fastest healing part of the body, for a number of reasons. Firstly, unlike your skin, the tissue lining your tongue, cheeks and inner lips is mucous tissue. It is much easier for the body to repair this, as it has a much simpler structure than skin tissue which has several layers. Secondly, there is a good blood supply, and the blood provides plentiful nutrients and oxygen to the damaged area, helping the healing process. And last, but not least, substances found in saliva are extremely useful. A protein called histatin which is found in saliva is an antibacterial agent. There is also an enzyme in saliva which is anti-inflammatory, anti-viral and anti-fungal!

Sticking with how quickly things happen in your body, did you know that fingernails grow faster than toenails?  In fact, they grow about three times quicker

On a completely different note, bulls can run faster uphill than downhill. This is because their hind legs are longer than their front legs. And if you think you could outrun some of these animals…think again! The warthog can reach speeds of up to 30 miles per hour, elephants up to 25 miles per hour, and a hippopotamus up to 28 miles per hour. That may not seem very fast, however, the fastest speed reached by a human is 27.5  miles per hour, and that was Usain Bolt!

You will have heard of diffusion, osmosis and active transport in your science lessons. They describe the different ways particles move from one place to another. But before you start revising, why not read about some of the ways we transport ourselves between places.

Throughout history, we have always looked for ways to travel around. However, less than one hundred years ago, most people would live, work and die within 100 miles of where they were born. Holidays abroad did not become common place until after the 1960’s. Modern transportation has dramatically changed how we live our lives. Not only can we travel over land, through the sky and across the sea, but have even started visiting space! But where did it all start?

Animals, such as horses and camels were first domesticated and used for transport around 4000 B.C. Many places in the world still rely on animals for transport to this day. Around 7000 years ago the first wheel was created, but it was used for pottery and not for getting around. It is not until 3500 B.C that wheels were fixed onto carts, with paved roads not being built by the Romans until 312 B.C.

Just think how far we have come since then. From camels to high speed trains and rockets, via hot air balloons and steam trains! We now have trains which can travel over 250 miles per hour and even trains which can be up to 4km long. From giant airships in the 1920’s and 30’s, which were huge, and slow but could fly all day, to commercial planes which travel on average at around 500 miles per hour. Can you believe that over half a million people will be travelling through the air at any one time?

Not only are there well know means of transport, such as buses and trains, but also very unusual methods. For example, a monorail in Wuhan, China is suspended below a rail beam, and can travel around the city at over 4omph. Or how about amphibious buses in the Netherlands. They can drive right off the road and into the canal – and continue motoring along!

GCSE scientists – you need to be able to explain what osmosis is, and where it happens in living organisms. You also need to describe different ways substances can be transported, including diffusion and active transport. For help, try our “How to work with Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport” revision guide. It includes information on the different methods of transport. There are also questions for you to try, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide:

If you don’t like learning about fractions,  you would have been happy in Maths lessons centuries ago!  Fractions as we use them today did not exist in Europe until the 17th century.

However, the Egyptians used them from 1800BC – with pictures called hieroglyphs.  They wrote them as unit fractions, in other words in the form 1/n. This made the maths much more complicated, as they could not write 2/3, but would write it using unit fractions, for example as 1/2  + 1/6. The Egyptians tried to overcome this by making lots of tables to look up answers instead of working them out. The ancient Romans used words to write them, not numbers. For example 2/7 would be written as “duae septimae”.

It is the Indian civilisation which first developed a number system of writing fractions, in a way very similar to what we used today. They placed the numerator above the denominator but did not have a line between them. The Arabs then added the line which we used today to separate them. That line is called a vinculum, which also means a connecting band of tissue.

It is hard now to imagine life without them.  We use them daily, when telling the time, shopping, cooking, or  buying burgers! Imagine ordering a quarter pounder with cheese, without the quarter, or trying to tell someone the time without being able to say half or quarter past.

If you ever struggle with fractions, or just need a reminder, check out our “How to work with Fractions” guide.  This will explain how to solve  problems for all ages, from working out equivalent fractions in primary to solving algebraic fractions in Year 11. It  also covers calculations, fractions of amounts and ordering.

Click on the picture below to view our useful guide.

The science we learn at school, including Newton’s Laws, tell us that it is impossible for Santa to deliver presents to all the children in the world! Imagine the speed he would have to fly at to travel such long distances in such a short space of time!

He would be travelling so quickly, the air resistance would be enormous. Assuming he sets off from the east, and due to the different time zones, he actually has 31 hours to complete his deliveries. To do this his sleigh needs to be moving at over 670 miles per second. That is over 3300 times the speed of sound!  Don’t forget he also has to stop regularly to drop off the presents. Rough calculations show he needs to make at least 768 visits per second! You are very unlikely to see Santa while he works, as he has only one thousandth of a second to stop his sleigh, jump down the chimney, eat his snack and leave the presents. He is one very speedy worker!

In order for this to happen (if it isn’t magic!), scientists suggest he experiences time dilation. In other words, the faster an object moves, the more time will slow down for them.  We know he travels ridiculously quickly, therefore time significantly slows down for him, giving him more time to deliver all those presents. It also means he grows old much slower than other people. Alongside time dilation, he also experiences time contraction. This suggests the faster an object moves, the smaller it gets. It would certainly explain how he can fit down the chimney with a sack of presents.

Let’s not forget how heavy his sleigh must be. Even if each child only got one tiny present, it would be ridiculously heavy. Those reindeer must be incredibly strong and able to withstand the heat resulting from the enormous air resistance. Normal reindeer would burst into flames and vaporise almost instantaneously. Santa must also be able to withstand centrifugal forces up to 17.500 times greater than gravity. Luckily for us, Santa does not obey the laws of Physics!

GCSE scientists, you need to know all about forces and motion, and be able to explain Newton’s Laws. For help with this, try our new guide, “How to work with Newton’s Laws”. The guide includes an explanation of Newton’s first, second and third Laws. As always there are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

There are about 700 enzymes active in the human body, some of which we need to digest our food.

If only Santa Claus had a few more – he is going to need them. Santa visits over 2 billion children in one evening – in up to 600 million different houses. Obviously different houses will offer him a different selection of food and drink BUT if we assume he has at least one mince pie or cookie, and a glass of milk in every home, he will have consumed over 150 billion calories in one night. That many calories could keep him active for a very long time. And probably give him a bit of indigestion. The amount of milk he drinks is enough to fill over 50 Olympic swimming pools. Say, rather than milk, he has a small sherry each time he stops to deliver the presents, he will be very merry! Just in the UK, he would be drinking around 800 sherries every single second.

Just the sherry he may drink in the UK would cause him to gain over 263 tonnes in weight – that is almost the weight of 22 double decker buses. His New Year resolution had better be to do a lot of exercise. To burn it off, he would need to run for 146,666 days. Then he would need to walk briskly for around 1.3 billion miles, or he could jog for 980 million miles. Let us hope he has some stamina, as if he jogs at around six mph – he needs to keep jogging for about 19,000 years!

And let us not forget his reindeer. Not only do we leave food out for Santa, but also for his hard-working reindeer. If every house leaves just one carrot, there will be at least 395 million of them. As reindeers like to share, each reindeer would eat more than 44,000 carrots. Enough energy to keep them flying all night long.

Click the picture below to see the guide.

Protein synthesis is very important. The human body contains about 100,000 different types of protein. The body needs protein to grow, heal, and carry about nearly every chemical reaction in the body.

Protein also forms a very important part of our diet – and our Christmas dinner! Take the turkey for example, packed full of protein. But how protein-rich have Christmas dinners been throughout history?

In Tudor times, Christmas feasting was taken very seriously, and involved copious amounts of meat! Some of their choices may seem quite peculiar to us today. Can you imagine carving the Christmas badger, or stuffing a blackbird?! Add some peacock and swan to that along with a boar’s head and you are on your way. The Tudors loved meat and their meals would definitely have provided them with enough protein.

Moving on to the Georgians, who were partial to lots of luxurious food. The more meat the better, as it showed how wealthy and important they were. They were particularly fond of venison, beef and mutton. However, just like the Tudors, they also ate some foods we would probably not choose today. For example, turtle soup, or brawn (a meat jelly made from the boiled head of a calf). Even the mince pies and Christmas pudding contained meat alongside the dried fruit and sugar.

By Victorian times, lots of roast meat was still a very popular choice, with plenty of beef, turkey and venison on the menu. But as well as the abundance of protein, vegetables became a more important part of the meal for the rich as well as the poor. And even then sprouts, love them or hate them, were an integral part of a traditional Christmas dinner.

GCSE  scientists – you need to be able to explain the synthesis of protein. For help, try our new guide “How to work with Protein Synthesis”. It includes a description of transcription and translation.  As always there are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide.

Plants are vital for life – without photosynthesis taking place, we would all be very hungry. And we would miss out on all those sprouts with our Christmas dinner!

However, some plants don’t just survive off food they make themselves. Mistletoe is a hemiparasite. Alongside the food it gets from photosynthesising, it steals minerals and nutrients from its host. This explains why mistletoe can survive high in trees, not needing to reach the ground. It cannot actually survive unless feeding off another plant. In order to do this, it has a structure known as a haustorium. This helps it to glue itself to the host before penetrating its cells and stealing water and minerals. The mistletoe also produces bright white seeds, which birds are attracted to for food . As the seeds are sticky, they attach to their feathers once excreted. Consequently, the birds carry the seeds from tree to tree – thus spreading the mistletoe.

Consider that while you are kissing underneath it!

Another plant associated with Christmas is Holly. Ancient Romans used Holly during Saturnalia, a festival celebrating Saturn, the god of harvest. Some believe hanging a sprig of Holly in the house brings good luck and protection . But did you know that Holly is actually dioecious. This means , unlike most species, individual trees are either male of female!

GCSE scientists – you need to be able to explain what photosynthesis is. To help try out Part 1 of our new guide ” How to work with Photosynthesis”. It describes what photosynthesis is, includes the word and symbol equation and explains what the limiting factors of photosynthesis are. The guide includes information about how the plant uses the glucose made. Most importantly, there are example questions to try, alongside answers for you to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see our guide.

Come back and check our blog page for more resources to help you improve your understanding of different topics in various subjects. New Maths and Science guides will be coming soon.

With New Year fast approaching, and Bonfire Night just behind us, it is the time of year for plenty of firework displays. But have you ever wondered how this links to your lessons about alkali metals? And how much do you actually know about fireworks?

Most historians believe that fireworks were invented in China, though some argue it was in the Middle East or India. There is evidence that Chinese firecrackers were invented as long ago as 200 B.C. At around 800 A.D. Chinese alchemists mixed together salt peter (which contains potassium nitrate), sulphur and charcoal and made gunpowder. Once they made it they thought that these explosions would keep evil spirits away. To create some of the first fireworks, they would pack the gunpowder into bamboo shoots and throw the shoots into a fire.

An exploding firework is a number of chemical reactions happening simultaneously or in rapid sequence. Chemicals inside the firework combust when heat provides enough activation energy. Metal compounds known as metal salts give fireworks their colour. Different metal compounds give different colours. You can use alkali metals for this; sodium salts gives yellow and orange colours, lithium salts provides red colours.

The first documented use of fireworks in England  was in 1486, at the wedding of King Henry VII. However, it was not until Queen Elizabeth I ruled that they really became popular. Both the Queen herself, and Shakespeare, loved fireworks. The Queen appointed a special Fire Master who was in charge of all royal displays, and Shakespeare referenced fireworks in many of his plays.

GCSE Science students – you need to be able to describe and explain the properties of alkali metals. Our new guide, “How to work with Alkali Metals” can help. Included, as always are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

To see the guide, click on the picture below.

As it is getting closer to Christmas, before you start revising all about DNA, why not find out more about reindeer!

Have you ever wondered about where reindeer came from? Well, DNA is pretty amazing, and can tell us a lot about a species. Reindeer are cousins to cows and sheep, but their closest relations are deer. We already know that reindeer are pretty unique, especially at Christmas, but they are also the only species of deer to live all over the world. They live in arctic and subarctic regions, as well as throughout areas of Europe, North America and Asia! They are also the only deer who have been fully domesticated – possibly even as far back as 3000 BC according to cave paintings and other archaeological finds! Not only that, but they are the only deer species where both female and male can grow antlers.

As they live in very cold places, they have special adaptations to help them survive. Reindeer are the only deer species to have hair completely covering their nose. They are even a little like Rudolph with his red nose. Many tiny veins around their nose circulate warm blood, which helps them to warm up the cold air they breathe in. With their excellent sense of smell, they are able to find food hidden in the snow and  sense danger.

GCSE scientists – you need to be able to explain the structure of DNA. For help, try our new guide “How to work with DNA”. It includes a description of its structure. In addition there is information on how to extract it from fruit.  As always there are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide.

Electrolysis uses electricity to separate chemicals, you will have learned all about it in your science lessons.

But how much do you actually know about electricity! Why not have a read below before starting your revision.

Electricity travels extremely quickly, in fact it actually travels at 270,000 km per second, or in other words, at around 90%  of the speed of light. There are conflicting reports of when electricity was discovered, but many  believe that Benjamin Franklin discovered it in 1752. He flew a kite with a metal key tied to it during a thunderstorm, and realised that lightning is a form of electricity. However, the ancient Greeks discovered static electricity long before this. Back in 600 B.C. when they rubbed amber with materials like fur, they notice it attracted small objects like feathers. In fact, the Greek word for amber is “elektron”. William Gilbert, a scientist during the reign of Elizabeth 1st actually invented the term “electricity” based on the Greek word. In addition, he was the first person to recognise a connection between electricity and magnetism, and to discover that the Earth is actually a magnet!

GCSE scientists – you need to understand how electrolysis works. For help with this, try our new guide “How to work with Electrolysis”. It includes explanations on the electrolysis of molten compounds, and aqueous solutions. Included are half equations, questions for you to try, and answers to check your understanding.

To see the guide click the picture below.

Our “How to work with…” guide this week is all about shapes. If you need to know what a parallelogram or trapezium is, or how to tell the difference between an isosceles and scalene triangle – this is the guide for you. It describes the properties of regular 2D  shapes, including lines of symmetry and rotational symmetry. Try some questions, and use the answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide.

The menstrual cycle is very important as it prepares the body for pregnancy. But before you start revising all about the hormones which control it, why not find out how some other animals reproduce.

Usually it is the female of the species which  gets pregnant and produces babies. However, the seahorse and the sea-dragon are the exceptions to this, as it is actually the male which becomes pregnant and gives birth. The female will deposit her eggs in the male’s brood pouch, or sometimes attach them to his tail. He will then fertilise them, and after around two to four weeks will give birth to about one thousand fully formed seahorses. Male and female cichlids (a family  of fish) work as a team looking after the eggs until they hatch.  Taking turns, they keep the fertilised eggs in their mouth until they hatch. Unfortunately for the adult fish – they are unable to eat until the eggs hatch.

The Australian spider wasp has a more macabre way of reproducing. The female digs a burrow using spines on her front legs. Once completed, she will search for a spider, which could be as large as a huntsman spider – and much bigger than she is. She stings and paralyses the spider before dragging it back to her burrow,  and laying her egg inside it. Once the larva hatches it feeds off the spider.

GCSE scientists – you need to be able to explain the stages of the menstrual cycle, and how hormones control it. For help with this, try our new guide “How to work with the Menstrual Cycle”.  It includes a description of the stages, and how hormones interact to control it. As always there are questions to try, and answers to check understanding.

One of the required practicals for your physics exams is all about waves. But before you start revising, why not learn a little more about water waves and the sea.

Certain waves, known as swell waves can actually travel thousands of miles before reaching the shore. Storms and winds form these waves in the middle of oceans, and they carry huge amounts of energy and momentum to keep them moving. Because waves carry so much energy, they are able to create the coastal landscapes. The relentless hammering of waves on land, and deposition of the sediment they carry results in cliffs, bays and coves.

For help with this try our new guides “How to work with Required Practicals: Part 8 and Part 9”. Part 8  focuses on the Physics practicals needed for Combined Science in Physics Paper 2 (AQA). Included in Part 9 are all the additional practicals needed on both papers for AQA Physics.

One of the required practicals you need to revise if studying GCSE Chemistry is all about neutralisation. However, before you start learning all about it – why don’t you find out a little about acids, alkalis and other chemicals in animals.

In the animal kingdom, acid and other irritating chemicals can be extremely useful defence mechanisms. There are many insects which spit out chemicals in some way, one of which is the Bombardier beetle. These small ground beetles are found on every continent except Antarctica. In order to protect itself, this beetle has developed the ability to fire a mixture of boiling, irritating chemicals out of its abdomen. Two glands, containing different chemicals, are located at the tip of the abdomen. If the beetle feels threatened, it mixes these together in a reaction chamber – resulting in an exothermic reaction. Almost instantaneously the boiling chemicals are forced out  the tip of the abdomen, in a series of continuous pulses. You can even hear the pop – and some of them have a very good aim!

Many ant species have a poison gland in their abdomen, where they produce acid. Some species will use stingers to inject acid into their prey, others will spray it instead. One species, the redwood ant, lives in huge colonies, of up to half a million ants. Rather than defending themselves individually, when threatened they act as a team. Thousands of them will spray acid into the air simultaneously. Some ants even drink the acid  in order to kill pathogens in their food. However, it is not only the ants who benefit. Some birds have discovered the acid can help them remove ticks and mites. Therefore, they will deliberately step on the ants to force them to release the acid.

Part 6 includes:

Rates of Reaction, Chromatography, Water Purification

Part 7 includes:

Neutralisation, Identifying Ions

You will find a brief description of what you need to know about each practical, and key questions you may be asked. As always there are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

Click below to see the guides.

 

 

Come back and check our blog page for more resources to help you improve your understanding of different topics in various subjects.  New Maths and Science guides will be coming soon.

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Before you start revising some of the required practicals in your GCSE’s, one of which investigates preventing bacterial growth – have a look at how useful bacteria can be.

When bacteria are mentioned, people usually imagine disease. However, bacteria are incredibly important to us, and the planet. They may well be the solution to many modern-day problems, such as reducing climate change, and lowering our carbon footprint when producing food!

You may already be aware that trillions of beneficial bacteria live in our bodies, helping to keep us healthy. They assist us in extracting energy from food, and even protect us from disease-causing bacteria. But scientists believe bacteria can help us, not only as individuals, but as a population. They could actually help produce enough food for the ever growing population. Bacteria, known as “hydrogenotrophs” change carbon dioxide into proteins which we can eat. You will have learned in science lessons that plants use energy from the sun to photosynthesise. But they are only able to do so because, many years ago, they incorporated photosynthetic bacteria into their cells. Chloroplasts, are descendants of these bacteria. If scientists can find a way to use solar electricity in order to help the bacteria produce proteins faster, food production could be more efficient than ever!

Bacteria could also play a huge role in limiting climate change. They will take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but unfortunately they do this very slowly. Species of bacteria exist which are faster-growing, but they would rather eat sugar than carbon dioxide. Promisingly, scientists have managed to turn a fast-growing species of bacteria into a carbon dioxide feeder!  The newly evolved bacteria could be 10 times more effective at removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than photosynthesis.

For GCSE Science  – you need to be able to explain how to investigate how antiseptics and antibiotics prevent bacterial growth. It is one of the required practicals you must revise for AQA Paper 2.

For help with this try our new guides “How to work with Required Practicals: Part 4 and Part 5”.
Part 4 focuses on the Biology practicals needed for Combined Science and Biology Paper 2 (AQA). Included in Part 5 are all the additional practicals needed on both papers for AQA Biology.

Part 4 includes: Reaction Times, Investigating Population Size

Plants have some amazing ways of surviving – and the adaptations of  their leaves are very important in their survival.  All plants need water, but too much water can be a dangerous thing!  Mould grows on leaves if they get too wet. In the rain forest, leaves have adapted in different ways to cope with exceptionally high rainfall. Some leaves are waxy and thick – allowing water to fall straight off them and down to the roots. Others have drip tips that act like a spout, allowing extra water to dribble off. Some plants and trees even have leaves that catch rain as it falls and hold onto it. These leaves absorb the water slowly as and when the plant needs it. They may also resist mould more easily than other leaves.

But there are some even more fascinating adaptations.

A species of pitcher plant in Borneo, has a mutually beneficial relationship with bats. The shape of the plant allows it to work as an echo reflector,  reflecting the sound bats make back at them. This helps the bats to find them, and somewhere to sleep after a long night flying around! In turn, the pitcher plant extracts nutrients from the bat poo. This is very much appreciated, as the pitcher plants grow in soil which is low in nutrients.

Scientists have also discovered that an Arabidopsis plant will respond defensively when the sound of caterpillars munching away is played to them. In order to protect themselves, they produce lots of mustard oil in their leaves, a chemical which caterpillars do not like.

Or how about the dodder vine, a parasitic plant which depends on a host plant to survive. It actually smells its prey! The vine is sensitive to chemicals in the air, clearly preferring some smells. For example, it will choose tomatoes over wheat! The vine detects the chemicals produced by the tomato plant, and sends a tendril out towards it. The tendril wraps itself around the tomato plant- and steals the nutrients within it!

GCSE Science students – you need to be able to describe how leaves adapted for their function. Our guide, “How to work with Adaptations of Leaves” can help. Included, as always are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

To see the guide, click on the picture below.

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“What is the point of the quadratic formula?” has been asked in many classrooms around the world. Apart from helping you solve quadratic equations, which you need to be able to do in your exams, it does actually have many uses. And quadratic equations have been around for a very long time, since 3000 B.C and the Babylonians. The Babylonians divided circles up into 330 degrees, although by accident! They also began writing, and introduced agriculture and taxes. This is where the quadratic equation proved useful – helping farmers work how much crop could be grown on each field, whilst producing enough to cover taxes.

Now – you may say that you are not a farmer, so it is of no use to you. But what if you play rugby?

You are in the final minute of a rugby match and you have to kick a perfect drop goal. The last thing you will be thinking about is your maths lessons. However, to score you must kick the ball at the correct angle and velocity so that when it travels a  certain distance  to the goal it is at the right height to go over the goalposts. To do this you must solve a quadratic equation! Or practice….. a lot!   Quadratic equations are actually used in everyday life, when calculating areas, determining a product’s profit or formulating the speed of an object. They can also be used for defining the shape of parabolic mirrors, reflecting telescopes and satellite dishes.

GCSE Maths students – you need to be able to factorise using the quadratic formula. Our new guide, “How to work with the Quadratic Formula” can help. It includes the formula, and explains how to use it. Included, as always are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

To see the guide, click on the picture below.

Not everyone is a fan of  algebra. If you struggle with it, why not have a relax and maybe a few laughs (or groans!) at some of these mathematical jokes before starting to learn all about it!

• Why is breaking up with a partner just like doing algebra?    Because you have an x, and you are trying work out y
• Why did the Romans find algebra easy?   Because X was always 10
• The Geography book asked the Algebra book why it was so sad. It replied “Because I have so many problems”
• Which tool is the best one for maths?       The multi-pliers
• Why was six afraid of seven?      Because seven, eight, nine!
• Why did the obtuse angle jump in the pool?    Because it was over 90 degrees
• Why couldn’t the angle get a loan? Because his parents wouldn’t cosine.
• Why did the student wear glasses in math class? To improve di-vision.

Algebra is used in many ways, but can still be an area of Maths which many find difficult to understand. If you need some more help with algebra, then have a look at Part 5 of how “How to work with Algebra” guide.

Part 5 focusses on solving equations. It explains how to solve the following:

• One step equations
• Two step equations
• Letters on both sides
• Equations with brackets
• Equations with fractions

It also has some questions to help you practise, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to view the guide.

Algebra can seem confusing – as you are using letters as well as numbers. But before you start revising – have a look at some fun facts about words.

Did you know that there are words in the dictionary that are only there due to human errors. These are known as ghost words, and usually arose from typing errors. People then believed they were actually part of the language. Some of these words  you will be familiar with!

• Gravy: It appears this only became a word after a 14th century translator misread a French recipe. It should have read “grane”, and at the time meant “anything used in cooking”. When translated to English – the n was replaced accidentally with v – and so gravy began

• Dord: This non existent word has been removed from dictionaries now. However, it was in for 8 years in the 20th century, until 1947. Apparently the original entry in the dictionary had “D or d”, as in either D or d, to abbreviate the word density. But someone misread this as a full word “dord”. It literally had no meaning at all.

• Syllabus: For all of you studying GCSE’s – you will have heard of this word. This first came about from a misprint in the 15th Century. Although Cicero, a Roman philosopher, died in 43 C, letters he wrote have the word “sittybas” or “sittubas” in them. This is a Greek word meaning a label for a book. However, one printing of his work spelled this incorrectly as syllabus. Many people believed it was a Latin word, and the spelling of it remained – taking on a new meaning in the mid 1600’s

• Esquivalience: This was a deliberate entry, invented by the editor of an American dictionary. Wanting to catch people stealing information from his dictionary – he made up this word, and defined it as “the wilful avoidance of one’s official responsibilities”. If seen in any other dictionary – he would know it had been stolen. Very sneaky!!

• To help you understand algebra more, try Part 2 of our “How to” Algebra guides. This section provides guidance on power and roots, and explains how to expand single, double and triple brackets. There are example questions for you to try at the end of the power point, and answers are included so you can check your understanding.

Eukaryotic cells can look very different from each other, depending on what their function is.  Cells will become specialised, have a wide range of different jobs, and behave in many ways. Many cells are designed for just the one job. However, there are some cells, like microglia in the brain, which can multi-task!

Microglia are the primary immune cells in the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord).  You will be familiar with neurons from your science lesson – and probably think that the brain is solely made of neurons. But in fact, about half of the mass of our brain is composed of glia cells which support the neurons. The smallest of these glial cells is the microglia. They actually only take up about 10% of our brain – but are really important in keeping it clean and healthy.

They are constantly on high alert, their branches reaching out to all the cells around them, all the time. If they do not detect danger they will remain in a “resting state”. But, the second they spot anything wrong, for example a pathogen or too much protein, they transform. They become blob like, flattening, and their branches shortening. After this they move to whatever the problem is and engulf it.

Unfortunately, like most things, these cells can lose control and actually cause disease. As well as engulfing what is not wanted in the brain, they also cause inflammation in a particular area, in order to kill whatever is there. If there is too much inflammation and it lasts too long however, it can destroy healthy cells.

Not only are they involved in preventing disease, but also in brain development. They will engulf synapses (connections between neurons) which are unused – helping learning processes. Scientists also believe they could be responsible for memory loss in old age. As they get older, they get larger, losing some of their branches. Naturally, this makes them less able to get rid of unwanted synapses needed to learn and remember things!

To help you understand, check out Part 2 of our “How to work with Cell Biology” guide. This describes the structure of different cells, and how they are adapted. It also includes some GCSE questions for you to practice, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide.

An important part of homeostasis is to control our blood sugar levels. But is it just humans who like sweet things?

Many humans have a sweet tooth, and some say that sugar is as addictive as drugs, although in a very different way. It is not only humans who are partial to sugar. Studies show that many omnivores enjoy the taste. However, carnivorous animals seem to have evolved so they have no taste receptors for sweet foods. As they do not ever eat anything sweet, they have lost the ability to taste it! Scientists investigated a number of carnivorous species to find out whether they had a mutation in their sweet taste receptor gene, stopping it working.

In some of these species, for example, the spectacled bear, the gene had not mutated. Further experiments involved offering them sugar water or plain water. The bears clearly preferred the sugar water. More of the species tested did have mutated sweet taste receptor genes, including otters. The same test was carried out  – and the otters had no preference at all for plain or sugar water.

It does appear that not all sugar loving animals are as keen on sugar-replacements though. Rats and mice will happily eat sugar containing foods, or saccharin (a sugar replacement). But they do not like aspartame – a sweetener in many diet drinks. Wallabies are able to detect and enjoy glucose, sucrose and fructose, but were indifferent to any sugar substitutes.

And spare a thought for animals like the dolphin or sea lion. Not only have they lost the ability to taste sweet things, but they also cannot really taste bitter foods. In fact the sea lion has virtually no taste buds at all. Not that this would bother them much – as you will not see either animal savouring their food. Instead they swallow fish whole!

To help you understand how we manage the levels of glucose in our blood, check out Part 2 of our “How to” revision guide on Homeostasis. This guide concentrates on blood glucose regulation in the body.

It explains:

• Why we need to maintain the levels of glucose in our blood
• How our body can detect changes in glucose levels
• How our body responds to either an increase or decrease in blood glucose levels
• What happens when our body cannot manage glucose levels effectively anymore
• How sufferers of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes can manage the disease

This will help if you are studying for GCSEs.  It is also suitable for A Level students, as sections of the guide go “beyond GCSE”. It includes some example GCSE and A Level questions with answers at the end, so you can check your understanding of blood glucose regulation.

Click on the picture below to view our guide.

• Describing why we need to maintain a constant body temperature
• Describing how our body can detect changes in temperature
• Explaining how it responds to either heat us up or cool us down

This will help if you are studying for GCSEs, but is also suitable for A Level students, as sections of the guide go “beyond GCSE”. It includes some example GCSE questions and answers at the end so you can check your understanding of thermoregulation.

Click on the picture below to view our guide.

The study of genetics is fascinating, and there are some very rare and unusual genetic diseases and disorders. Mutations can also take place which can sometimes lead to some peculiar outcomes.

About 15 years ago, an octopus with only six tentacles was caught off the coast of Wales. Named Henry, his mutation was only noticed when he was taken to live in an aquarium. As octopuses are able to regrow their tentacles if they are cut off, it became apparent that he had not lost two of them. He actually did not have any space between his other tentacles for any to grow. Therefore scientists realised it was a result of his genes!

Colour mutations also take place, some being more common than others. Albinism if probably the most well known – where the pigment melanin is absent. It happens in all species, and in animals usually results in pink eyes and yellow skin. However, it should not be confused with leucism. This causes reduced pigment levels, but of all pigments, not just melanin. Animals with leucism will have normal coloured eyes – but appear to be white overall, like white tigers or lions.

Rare examples of colour mutations include the blue lobster. Shells are blue due to the over-production of certain proteins. These proteins interact with a red pigment in the crab – resulting in a blue tint.

GCSE scientists – you need to explain how diseases and blood types can be inherited. For help with this try our new guide “How to work with Genetics: Part 2”. In this guide is an explanation of how to use family pedigree diagrams as well as how diseases and blood types are inherited. There is also information on sex-linked disorders, and genetic diagrams showing how they can be inherited. It includes questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide.

Reproduction is vital for all living things. Over the years, plants have adapted and evolved in some very unusual ways in order to reproduce. They will even trick and trap insects and other animals to ensure they get their way!

The skunk cabbage grows in very wet and cold areas in New Jersey, and blooms early in the season. So it can survive in these conditions, it can heat itself up, a process called thermogenesis, thus melting the snow around it. In addition, it emits a smell like rotting flesh, attracting bees and insects to transfer pollen between plants. The Axinaea flower uses a very different method. Sugar-filled yellow berries are attached to the pollen-producing stamens. Irresistible to birds, they feed on these berries. However, as soon as they start to eat them, pollen explodes into their faces. The anthers are full of air, and as soon as a beak squeezes them,  the air is forced out, blowing the pollen into the bird’s face. The bird will then carry the pollen onto the next plant – where it can pollinate the ovum.

Other plants are much more scary. The Jack-in-the-pulpit is a large flower with a hood on the top, which makes it dark inside the flower. This plant has male and female flowers. Bees will venture inside the male flower for pollen, getting covered in it as they fly around in the dark. However, there is a way for them to escape through a hole at the bottom of the flower. The bee can then fly to a female flower and transfer the pollen. Unfortunately for them, the female flower has no escape route, and the bee is trapped and dies inside!

GCSE scientists – you need to be able to explain the difference between asexual and sexual reproduction and the different types of cell division. For help, try our new guide “How to work with Reproduction and Cell Division”.   As always there are questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide.

There are many transition metals, with many different uses, one of which is titanium.

Titanium is the 9th most abundant element in the Earth’s crust – and can be found in many other places. Most is found in igneous rocks – with almost every single one of them containing some. However, it is also found in plants, inside the human body, in the sea and on the Moon! Satellite maps of the moon’s surface show clusters of rock rich in titanium.

Made in supernovas (collapsing stars), it is named after the Titans, the gods of the Earth in Greek mythology. Recent research says that a single supernova is able to create up to 100 times as much titanium as the mass of the Earth.

It is a really useful metal, because it is strong, and resistant to corrosion. Nuclear waste can be stored in titanium containers- which can last up to 100,000 years. Engineers use it for many things, as is not only tough, but also lightweight. Much less titanium is needed to produce a structure with the same strength as other metals. This is because it has the highest strength to weight ratio of any structural metal. In addition, it is shiny and surprisingly elastic. Many famous buildings and monuments are partly titanium. For example , the Guggenheim Museum, and the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

GCSE Chemists – you need to be able to know the properties and uses  of the transition metals. For help with this try our guide “How to work with the Transition Metals and Alloys”. It contains information on transition metals and what alloys are. It includes questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

Algebra uses letters – and letters and words can be fascinating!!

According to the Guinness Book of Records, “set” is the word in English which has the most meanings. Apparently there are up to 430 different meanings! Or have you heard of the word “honorificabilitudinitatibus”? It means a state in which it is possible to achieve honour, and is the longest word with alternating vowels and consonants.

The longest known palindromic word, a word where the letters read the same backwards, is saippuakivikauppias. It is a Finnish word meaning a dealer in lye or caustic soda. Not one you would use in every day conversation.

If you struggle with algebra, check out the first part of our “How to” guides on Algebra.  Part 1 explains the basics of algebra, what terms and expressions are, and will show you how to collect like terms, and multiply letters. It also includes some questions for you to try at the end so you can check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to view our useful guide.

Microscopes have been around for hundreds of years, with the earliest known as “flea glasses” because they were used to observe insects. Insects certainly come in all shapes and sizes – some so small we can hardly see them, and some as big as birds!!

The aptly named Titan beetle, is the largest in the world, growing up to 6.6 inches long! Scarily, it has mandibles capable of snapping a pencil in half, and could certainly rip into human skin!  Or if you are looking for the heaviest insect, then it is the Giant wētā.  Closely related to crickets, they are enormous insects hailing from New Zealand. Weighing around the same as a sparrow, unlike crickets, they are unable to jump. They have been on the Earth for nearly 190 million years!!  The meaning of their name is not so pretty – derived from the Maori word “wetapunga”, meaning “god of ugly things”.

You definitely would not want to meet a tarantula hawk, the largest wasps on Earth. Growing to over 2 inches long, they are not to be messed with. The females will lay her eggs inside a living tarantula’s abdomen. The spider is then eaten alive after her eggs hatch out! As you can imagine – their stingers are very large and very painful!

GCSE scientists – you need to understand how to use a microscope. For help with this try our new guide “How to work with Microscopes”. In this guide is an explanation of how to use microscopes as well as how to calculate magnification. There is also information on the difference between electron and light microscopes. It includes questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide.

DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of a living organism. While there are billions of people in the world, each one unique , we actually share 99.9% of our DNA with each of them. The Human Genome Project , completed in 2003, confirmed that 99.9% of the 3 billion base pairs in humans were identical. That means just 0.1% of your genes is what makes you unique. And we are all a lot more alike than you may have imagined!

It is fascinating what your DNA can tell you. It can indicate what kind of medical conditions you may be prone to and inform you about your ancestry. You can even discover whether you are likely to have perfect pitch or smell asparagus!

Scientists extract DNA from  saliva samples, and will look at it in hundreds of thousands of different places. This is then compared to the DNA of thousands of people in a database from all around the world. By checking for similarities in different areas, they can match you to groups of similar people. This can then indicate where your ancestors may have come from. Different parts of your DNA may  be matched with different populations, showing you have ancestors from different parts of the world. Because thousands of years ago it was not easy to travel around the world, people were more likely to have children with their neighbours. This resulted in people sharing more DNA with people living nearby.

GCSE scientists – you need to explain how genetic information is passed on from parents to offspring. For help with this try our new guide “How to work with Genetics: Part 1”. It includes information on genetic diagrams and key vocabulary you need. It includes questions to try, and answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide.

Cells are the building blocks of living organisms, and most of them are so small you cannot see them without a microscope.

In 2015, scientists managed to capture detailed microscopy images of ultra-small bacteria. Scientists debated for years over whether they actually existed, and they are believed to be as small as a living organism can get. The average volume of these cells is 0.009 cubic microns. This is small…..one micron is one millionth of a metre! More than 150,000 of them could fit onto the tip of a human hair. The cells seem to have DNA, ribosomes and some thread like appendages – but are described as very common but a little bit odd! As they are so small they rely completely on other, larger bacteria to survive. It is believed they attach themselves to other microbes using their appendages.

Many, though not all,  extremophiles are single celled organisms. One bacterial species, the Deinococcus radiodurans, is able to survive a 15,000 gray dose of radiation. To put this in perspective, 10 grays would kill a human! And even cockroaches, which are incredibly difficult to kill, can only survive just over 1,000 grays. Not only this, but they are officially the world’s toughest bacterium, able to survive extreme cold, dehydration, acidic conditions and vacuums!

If you are in Year 7 or above, you need to be able to recognise the difference between bacterial cells, animal cells and plant cells. You should also be able to label and explain the functions of the organelles. For GCSE students it also explains the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Luckily measuring rates of reaction is far easier than having to use any of these!

If you are studying GCSE Science, you need to know how to measure rates of reactions . Try our new “How to work with Rates of Reaction: Part 2” guide. Included is an explanation of different ways of measuring the rates.  Questions for you to try, and answers to check your understanding can also be found in the guide.

GCSE scientists – you need to be able to explain the properties of covalent compounds. Our new guide “How to work with Covalent Bonding: Part 2” will help you. It describes and explains the properties of both simple covalent molecules, and giant covalent structures like diamond and graphite.  It also includes questions, and answers for you to check your understanding.

In science lessons you will learn that metals and non-metals form salts through ionic bonding. We all use salt in cooking, to flavour our food. Why not read some fun facts about preparing and cooking food before learning all about the chemistry of salt!

Archaeologists have evidence that cooking dates back 1 million years, but it is believed it could have started 2 million years ago! It is only humans who use fire or heat to cook food. However, we are not the only animals to prepare food! The sous chefs of the bird world would be shrikes, otherwise known as the butcher bird. They will place poisonous grasshoppers on thorns, and leave them until all the toxins have broken down. Or how about Capuchin monkeys – they leave palm nuts in the sun to dry, making it easier for them to crack the shells!

We all associate chefs with the chef’s hat! But have you any idea where it came from? There are many different suggestions.  Some believe hats were worn by chefs as early as the 7th Century – signifying status. Legend says that chefs were given crown-like hats to make them feel special, and prevent them form poisoning kings who were mistreating them! At the time, chefs were considered learned men, as they could read( in order to learn new recipes), when many could not. This led to persecution, and chefs took refuge in church, wearing monks’ outfits – including caps. Some say these caps evolved into the chef’s hat.

Another tale indicates that King Henry VIII actually beheaded a chef after finding a hair in his dinner. His replacement chef, very wisely, was instructed to wear a hat while cooking! Apparently the hat is white, because it was believed to be the most hygienic colour.

Traditionally, the  height of the hat, and how many pleats the hat has are significant. The height indicates how important the  chef is. The taller it is – the more important the chef is. The pleats  represent how many recipes a chef has mastered. Years ago, a chef had 100 pleats to show he knew 100 ways to cook eggs.

GCSE scientists – you need to be able to explain which salts are made when metal and non metal ions form salts through ionic bonding. You also need to be able to describe the structure and properties of these ionic compounds. In addition you must explain why they have these properties. If you need some help, check out our new “How to work with Ionic Bonding: Part 2” guide. It covers these areas, and includes  questions for you to try, along with answers to check your understanding.

Click on the picture below to see the guide.